Stalins Launch of the Great Terror Essays - 1407 Words

Stalins Launch of the Great Terror The Great Terror of 1936-1938 came after a period of success, with the completion of the First Five Year Plan and the Peasants had been collectivised to make food for the workers in the factories. Yet there was still opposition to Stalins leadership inside the party from Ryutin; Ryutin argued that Stalin should be removed from the position of General Secretary. Stalin then called for the execution of Ryutin (most communist did not believe in killing their own), Kirov, Stalins supporter and the head of Leningrad headed the majority against the execution. This made Kirov very popular in the party and when there was a vote in the Central Congress for the†¦show more content†¦He also admitted to conspiring with Trotsky to destroy Communism - this conspiracy was called the Trotskyite - Zinovievite Conspiracy. The other Trials were in 1937 with Trotsky, but he was not in the country, yet they still said he was the lead conspiracer and a counter-revolutionary. In 1938, Bukharin was put on trial, he admitted to nearly everything except, conspiring to plotting the murder of Lenin. These trials made the Russian people believe that there was a conspiracy going on and that anyone could be in on it. This made workers suspicious of anyone who did not produce as much as their fellow workers, this meant that everyone worked hard. This was a brilliant way of getting the workers to produce more to push crash industrialisation along, if there had not been the conspiracy theory then Russia would not have acted like a Totalitarian State and therefore not have been as productive. The theory scared the Russian people from even thinking anti-communist thoughts in case they were taken away to labor camps. This fear gave total control to Stalin over all areas of Russia as no one wanted to be sent to the labor camps, so this was a very effective way of controlling the people of Russia. Another reason for StalinShow MoreRelatedJoseph Stalins Power1574 Words   |  7 Pagesall of the loyal supporters and expel those who could not be sure about. From the mid-1930s he began to use public events had accused people and would get them arrested, tortured, killed or all of it combined. According to this website Joseph Stalins Rise to Power. History.com. AE Television Networks shows him getting closer to what he wants. In 1924 when Vladimir Lenin died, Stalin took over the whole leadership of the Soviet Union. Fear became one of the main weapons Stalin used against theRead MoreThe Progression from Leninism to Stalinism Essay1405 Words   |  6 PagesTrotsky, a friend of Lenin and a staunch opponent of Stalin, grudgingly admits that Stalinism did issue from Bolshevism (Trotsky). Stalins policy of socialism in one country, his use of terror to eliminate opposition, and his suppression of democracy and the soviets were all characteristics of Lenin well before they were characteristic of Stalin. Although some of Stalins policies were different from those of Lenin, what difference Stalinism did show from Leninism were either policies which Lenin hadRead MorePossible Repercussions of Publishing One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich892 Words   |  4 Pagesthen will they be prepared to make the sacrifices the regime will require. Although innovative, General Secretary Khrushchev has realized that such a policy is fraught with dangers and has definite limits. There will have to be change, but not too great as to threaten the ruling group’s hold on power. The system has to be reformed, but without weakening the rudimentary class relations from which the elite derives its privileges. Publishing â€Å"One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich† will result in theRead MoreThe Historical Background Of Yuri Gagarin1794 Words   |  8 Pagesunderstand the significance of the Gagarin’s accomplishment, it is important to look at historical background in the Soviet Space program and supporting individuals such as Sergei Korolev that helped in culminating Gagarin’s galactic feat. Origins from the Great Patriotic War. The background of the Soviet program is derived from World War II. At the end of the war the major German rocket center Nordhausen became a prime target of the Soviets. After the Soviets reached Nordhausen on their way to Berlin, famousRead MoreMccarthyism And America s Penchant For Paranoia1522 Words   |  7 Pageswho were communists (he later dropped this number to 57). Just a few weeks later, he gave a five-hour speech before the Senate where he claimed to have uncovered an â€Å"iron curtain† plot in the State Department (Cook). 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Explain the Impact This Change Has Made on Our Lives and Why It Is an Important Change.163893 Words   |  656 Pagesand industrial depression from the late 1860s to the 1890s, as well as the social tensions and political rivalries that generated and were in turn fed by imperialist expansionism, one cannot begin to comprehend the causes and consequences of the Great War that began in 1914. That conflict determined the contours of the twentieth century in myriad ways. On the one hand, the war set in motion transformative processes that were clearly major departures from those that defined the nineteenth-century

Security Threats Are Caused By Hackers And Viruses

Security threats are caused by hackers and viruses. Hackers use what they know to break into computers and computer networks just because they know how. There are several types of hackers to include black-cat hackers, crackers, cyber terrorists, hactivists, script kiddies or script bunnies, and white-hat hackers. Black-cat hackers break into computer systems and might steal or destroy information. Crackers intend on breaking the law when hacking. Cyberterrorists use the internet to hurt people or destroy systems. Hactivists break into systems for political and philosophical reasons. Script kiddies or script bunnies use codes from the internet and use the computer mouse to cause damage. White-hat hackers work for the owners of the system to find where vulnerabilities exist to fill in the gaps (Baltzan, 2015). To protect consumers from hacking and viruses’ information security exists. â€Å"Information security is a broad term encompassing the protection of information from ac cidental or intentional misuse by persons inside or outside an organization† (Baltzan, 2015). Even though information security exists unfortunately people are still subjected to breaches in security of their data. Breaches may occur in the healthcare industry, government facilities and also the banking industry. In 2015 alone there were several big data breaches where hackers gained access to a database members used to get access to a company’s website and services. One of the big breaches reported was inShow MoreRelatedComputer Security Against Viruses and Hacking Essay1627 Words   |  7 PagesViruses, worms, Trojan horses, and hacking are all security issues in our computer network. Each of these malwares or programs attaches and spreads in different ways. Through hacking hackers can infect computers with various types or malware and viruses. This paper will explain what viruses are, how it occurs and the types of cybercrimes that can result from it, and how to b etter protect your computer. â€Å"Security warning! Application cannot be encrypted or Spyware alert! Your computer is infectedRead MoreHackers And Its Effects On Society1085 Words   |  5 PagesMore than 30 percent of computers are infected by hacker-made viruses (â€Å"China Issues†). Hackers are an international threat that breach computers to gain information, to harm others, to make a profit, or to cripple a system. Hackers steal anything that might give them what they specifically want. This threat has increased to the severity that hacking threatens corporations and governments. Unfortunately, the hacking epidemic is rapidly spreading, but in order to counter hacking, one must examineRead MoreEssay about Threats to Computer and Data Systems Today707 Words   |  3 Pagesasset in any organization particular those who provide financial service to others. Threats can come from a variety of sources such as human threats, natural disasters and technical threats. By identifying the potential threats to the network, security measure can be taken to combat these threats, eliminate them or reduce the likelihood and impact if they should occur. Hacking Outsider attackers often called hackers because they gain access to system without authorization or permission from the ownersRead MoreThe New Concept Of The Internet Of Things ( Iot ) And Iot Security1488 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction Computer viruses and other malicious software have caused major issues for individuals and organizations. 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Especially, the computer crime is a growing threat to society and is caused by the criminal or irresponsible actions of individuals who are taking advantage of the widespread use and vulnerability of computers and the Internet and other networks. It presents

Extent to Which Schools’ in Hong-Kong Use English as Languages Excep

Question: What is the extent to which schools in Hong-Kong use English and languages except Chinese as their medium of communication? Answer: Introduction: The under detailed research is based on the study about use of English language by people in Hong-Kong. A particular age bracket has been interviewed and analyzed and were asked questions related to use of English in their personal as well as professional life. The research question here was What is the extent to which schools in Hong-Kong use English and languages except Chinese as their medium of communication? The main aim of the study is to analyze the use of English and other languages in schools of Hong-Kong. I have considered a particular school run in the Hong Kong by propermutual-aidfirmthatwasactually settledupby the mainlanders coming toHong-Kongfollowing the setting of Peoples Republicof China (Davison, 2007).The organization has actually placed very higher values upon theusageof Putonghua as well as this isthe authorizedmediumof communicationfor the ChineseLanguage plus Literatureas well as for whole Chinese Historywithin this school.Because of useof this language in the society of HongKongthe community is oftenexpectedtowards enhancingbeneath the Chinesesovereignty, pattern of the language usewithin this school may alsoprovidefewindicationsof the way in which the circumstances is probabletodevelop within schools in HongKong generally since some coming years.Anextrareasonfor selection of this is thatI actually waspreviously familiar withorganization. Background A person residing and born plus brought up in Hong Kong in China generally grows up with and intent to always speak Chinese both at home plus even at school. Yet some schools even teach English and also Putonghua. Thus people might know three languages say English, Cantonese and Putonghua. Language in reality is merely a process of appropriate human communication which is either spoken otherwise written and also consists of utilization of words within very structured as well as conventional way. Review of Literature: The research is actually based on the study which analyzes use of English language and other languages except Chinese in schools of Hong- Kong. This study would enable the researcher to understand all the facts and details related to linguistic differences among several nations and areas and even sometime amid localities. The research well even help the readers to get the details as well as it would throw light upon the use of English language by people staying in Hong-Kong. Language actually is a process of appropriate communication of human beings either spoken or else written and also consists of use of terms and words within proper structure as well as conservative way (PENNINGTON and YUE, 1994). Thus the study aims to attain all the details related to language and specially use of English language by people in Hong- Kong. Since Hong-Kong is in china and Chinese people are always careful about use of their own Chinese language and even the schools and colleges in the nation use C hinese as basic language for communication, it has really become a necessity to evaluate and analyze the value of English in minds of people staying here. A proper age bracket has also been considered and analyzed plus even they were asked questions related to use of English in their personal as well as professional life. Thisstudy presentsa proper study of roles ofthe Putonghua,English as well as Cantonesein HongKong and the schools here that follow secondary education ideologically dedicatedtopromotion of the Putonghua, as well as also relates it to togeneralissue ofrelative situation of dissimilar languagesinthe Hong Kong.The research also studieshistoryof the languagepolicy withinthe particular school,whereI once worked,as well as presents all the outcomes ofthe questionnaire examination ofpractice plusopinions of present membersofthe staff. Efforts are also taken to promote the English-speaking atmosphere,such asthosetowards promoting English, actually have till avast extentbee n aggravatedbystrong affectiontowardsCantoneseofthe overwhelmingly Cantonese-speaking community. The obtainablepattern of the languages that are similar toones inseveral Hong Kong institutions for education as well as workplaces plus would also be extra difficulttowards changewith no presence of any significant percentage ofthe Non-English speakers in theorganization. Methodology Informationrelated to presentlanguage utilization plus attitudes at school under examination was studied and the details wereobtained upon threeindividual visits.A proper questionnaire also wasdistributedtowards teachingemployees and also 15forms were in reality returned.I even conducted face to face interviewswith principal,and English as well asChinesepanel plus witheachother the teacherof Englishplus oneof the Chinese.This also was done within Englishapart from for aChineseteacher,withwhomI also usedEnglish (Maza, 1957).I even explainedthat informationwasrequiredfor theprojectasa part of my researchbut may eventuallygetpublished within fewform or some other.Informantsalso werelater providedachance towards comment upon drafting of thereport for the research and, though principalhave found interpretation slightly subjective,therealso wereseriously zeroobjections towardsexactstatements. Withexception of Englishpanel, who actually had joinedschool uponreturningfrom the degreestudies w ithin USA,all those were interviewedwere actually known tomethroughmy self time operationalin school. There also was zeroconvenient English panelthat was met totaperecord, yet my feelingfrom three visits wasreliable withstatementsymptomatic of as well as almost completelyEnglishatmosphereexterior certain officialsettings. Data Presentsion Plus Analysis As primaryschool that was run by similarassociation looked likeit operates thePutonghua-mediumscheme allacrossmajority of curriculum,practice within secondary school examined is to persuade other than enforcing the utilization of the language Putonghua.Contractof teachersof Chinese mediumdemand that schools must teachthe students in English language.The first holderof suchpositionwasthePutonghua-speaker through Taiwanwho also had beforehandworkedlikeanacademicwithin theUSA.He also was notat all fluent within Cantonese plus he alsoattempted towards establishing thePutonghua otherwise Englishatmospherewithin the school, teachingstaff were instructed that they must never useCantonese towards talkingto one another in staff room.Fewteachersevenclaimedthat the teacherlikelychoseto talkin Putonghuatowards the membersof employees whothe teacherknewwere extra stronger in talking in English plusto utilizeEnglishwith all thosewho actually were extracomfortablewithin Putonghua.A Chinese teacher speaking was also saidto getresigned just because of the result of the application of the rules.Also in contrast, currentprincipalof the school was also unable to talk inPutonghua while appointed plus wasalso askedby association towards taking lessons.He then claimsto get reasonablyeasy but carries on to build the speechesupon formaltimes in English,that remainsthestronger language of the teacher.Englishotherwise Putonghuaalso isstilllanguages utilizedfor operationslike yearly graduationceremonial.Common announcements at the assembly that also were made within the Cantonese language when I initially joined school as a teacher plus in Putonghua otherwise English while my last year arecurrently madewithin only Putonghua (PENNINGTON and YUE, 1994). In commonlife of school, overwhelminglythe Cantonese-oriented character of the HongKongcommunity haseffortlessly resisted institutionalforceto boost use ofthe Englishas well as Putonghua. Though realprincipals appointmentof theAmericanemigrantatsole stagelikeEnglishpanel made few utilizationof the Englishamong theteacherspredictable,instructionsfully banningthe Cantonesefrom staff roomalso were ignored other than whenprincipal himselfactually walked by.At presenteventhe contractualneedtoteach subjectsof Chinese-mediuminthe language Putonghua iscommonly disregarded.ChinesePanel alsoexplainedthatit actually washardto attainstudentstodisburse attention even while speaking to the students in their own mother-tongueas well as that extensive useof the Putonghua also wasthus impractical.Thoughno factor was mentioned, parental needs may even have counted all against the Putonghua, because I remember considering an interiorschool text suggesting thatthe parentsmay alsopress foruseof the Cantonesewithin its place. Someother teachersbelonging to Chinese and whom I spoke also claimedthat he or shehimselfas well as oneother associate of paneldidutilize Putonghua lengthilyyetthat o thersregularlyemployed the Cantonese.His selfmethod also was toprovide explanations of textbookwithin Putonghua,yet he also allowed studentsto reply to the questions within theCantoneselanguage and also to use Cantonese himselfforexplaining chieflyhardpoints.Healso expectedtoview greater stress upon Putonghua within future yet, like currentprincipal,wasalso against attemptingto impose language. Repliestowards questionnaireactually indicate pattern of the code-switching and was alsoprevalentall through mostofthe Hong Kongs so called schools that wereAnglo-Chinese.Also twoof Englisheducatorsdid, moreover, claimtowards usingEnglishupon few occasions withthe studentsexterior to the class, few thingsIhad also observed apreceding panel doing throughSixth type of studentswhile I also was a staff.Additionally, meetings of the English panel areyet conducted within the English language.Thoughthe panel statedabout this that this must ideallyhappen within any situation,shealso admittedthat esta blishingfactor actually wasactuallypresenceof theMalaysian-Chinesethat is in reality not so fluentin the language named Cantonese. This educator herself, who actually hadbeenwithin the Hong Kong since some nine years,even informed meabout herself that she till nownormallyutilizedEnglishfor every one-on-one interactionwith some other teachersas well as thatthoughshefrom time to time spokewithin the language said as Cantonese withthe learnersshealso preferred to talk in Englishwhile scoldingtheclass asthey maylaugh onherpronunciation of the Cantonese language.Sheeven hadparticular complexitywith extraformalvocabulary within the Cantonese language andwithinfullemployee meetings that were conducted, also asin my time,within Cantonese and then shecannot properly understand but sometimes also askedfor understandingif sheeven thought that a thing waschieflyimportant. Thoughacultural Chinese, shealso was therefore to a vastextent playing similarrole like thewestern teacherswho was also an e xpatriate and even had formerlyperformed within theschool by providingsome occasion forlargeruseof the Englishlanguage as compared to ones that otherwisecould haveoccurred, yet at costof beinganincomplete outsider within theCantonesesociety (Pierson, Fu and Lee, 1980).The status of this teacher actually was semi-foreignerand thus wasunbreakableasshewas never expert in Chinese plus therefore cannot getany advantageof the TVsubtitles or something else for aiding herattainmentof the Cantonese language. Englishatmosphere was not that commonwithin the school but yet teachingstaff were instructed that they must never useCantonese towards talkingto one another in staff room.Fewteachersevenclaimedthat the teacherlikelychoseto talkin Putonghuatowards the membersof employees whothe teacherknewwere extra stronger in talking in English plusto utilizeEnglishwith all thosewho actually were extracomfortablewithin Putonghua (Zhou, 2010). The thorough results of questionnaire are now being presented below in the form of a Table. It mustbenoted thattowards assisting thedistributionof typesthethe EnglishPanel or anyassistantthat has writtenthe individualteachers startingon themas well asthis might even have reservedthe honesty of results,especiallyfrom the time thetotalissueof the language utilizationpredominantlyin classroom is thesensitive one as well assince several of such asked to react already were known to me personally as I have worked in the school for some years in past time. Respondents subject and language background Subjects taught 1. Chinese/ Chinese history-2 2. Economics3. Chemistry4. Geography5 Biology6. English7. Math8. Computer 9. Arts10. PutonghuaLanguage use in specific situation E E(P) E(C) E+C C(E) C C(P) C(P,E) P+E P P(E) P(C,E) P Explaining content of thetextbookaChinese-medium subject 7 1 Explaining content of any text book in English medium subject 3 6 2 1 1 Classroom management in any English medium subject 2 5 2 1 3 Management of classroom in a Chinese medium subject 8 1 Talking to people outside class specially student 1 1 13 Staff meeting that is informal 12 2 1 Panel meeting 4 1 10 Informal interaction within the school a) To Cantonese coworkers 15 b) To Chinese coworkers and visitors 2 1 6 3 KEY 1. C = Cantonese2. E= English3. P= Putonghua Where single symbolseemsin brackets following another like E(C)) it shows normal utilization of first plus subsidiary utilization of second. Where duallanguages areseen in Used normallycolumnthey actually areLinkedwith + like E+ CThe responsesactually indicatedual symptoms that arecommonlylow phase of proficiencywithin thePutonghua as well asavery strong favorite for ongoingtofunction principallywithin theCantonese and also out of the aggregate which is 157 settings, answers also show predominantutilizationof the Cantonese within some110 teachers (Yu and Atkinson, 1988).This outcome might also beslowlyskewed asI havenot yet prepared anyChinese descriptionof questionnaireas well as a minimum two of Chinese panel countingoneof interviewees alsohadnegligibleEnglish, yet thisistill now possiblybroadlyenvoyof employees onawhole.It isevenvital that single of all the teachers of the Chinese who also returned the questionnaire claimedmerely about the capabilitytotalk one-on-one inthe Putonghua language notwith fullfluency. Avery great percentageof teachers also claimed thefluencywithin Englishthat was actually 14 out ofthe 15 who answered plus alsothat these people even felt very comfortablewhile speakingEnglish towards the foreigners that were 13from amongst the15. Contrarily, majoritywhich is 11 from all 15also may bevery happy tospeak and talk and use Englishtowards aChinese that didnever understand the Cantonese;such most probably reflects reality that all their poor authorityof Putonghua createsEnglishdemonstratesalower embarrassing choiceas well as alsolikelymost of replies experience using the Englishthroughtheir Malaysiancoworkers over manyyears.Data uponthis also point,however, beextra full ifquestionnaire may have also askedwhat language people actuallyutilizedwhile speaking in a straight lineto the Chinese who in reality didnever knowCantoneseyet were very proficientin Putonghua as well as English. Therealso were very clear majoritythat preferred to speak and write Englishother than Cantonesewhile talking tosomeWesterner that understood the Cantonese (Tsui and Bunton, 2000).As talkedin introducti on,such might reflect verysimple concern throughasserting selfstatuslikecapableusersof the language named Englishyet other reorganizations might also be important. It isevenvital that single of all the teachers of the Chinese who also returned the questionnaire claimedmerely about the capabilitytotalk one-on-one inthe Putonghua language notwith fullfluency. Avery great percentageof teachers also claimed thefluencywithin Englishthat was actually 14 out ofthe 15 who answered plus alsothat these people even felt very comfortablewhile speakingEnglish towards the foreigners that were 13from amongst the15. Finally,while answering questionsrelated to talking to people inCantonesein presenceof a personwho didnever understand particular language, the vast number ofrespondents actually indicatedthat, to the extent thattheir self proficiencypermittedit, they actually would select alanguageknown by thirdparty.Like Westernersin common often lodged complainaboutEnglish-talkingChinesecolleagueswho oftenfailed to dosuch in any situation. Commentary Regarding spokencommunication and interactions,workingecologies in the Hong Kong could in reality beseparatedto three classes that are, local who have almost eliteutilizationof Cantonese, second is the oldcolonial havingCantoneseusedin the middle ofcolleaguesyet Englishneeded for interactionwith all the superiors; andlastly the international who workingatthe similarlevel carry dissimilarlanguage backgroundsas well as Englishthus becomes natural base for their communication and interaction.Staff within theHong Kong school that was analyzed generallyworking as in a verylocal ecology and surrounding.The meeting ofanynon-Cantonese-talkerasinitial principalof school within thestudy distorted the total situationto old colonialassortment, but through the Putonghua plus English in highphase and situation as well as proper and greater stage. The appointmentlikeordinarypartsof employee of the non-Cantonese talker, whether Westerners otherwise ethnic Chinese also shifted whole ecology into inte rnationalway, for instance, in continuingutilizationof the English language for EnglishPanelsittings and meetings organized thereby. The main evidence and proof from the study demonstrates and shows that rather all this beingareturn towards oldcolonialreplica will never haveany extra effect uponhorizontalinteraction patterns, thatwould merely beshifted considerablythrough introducingverysignificantquantity of the non-Cantonese talkersas commonplacemembersof the employees otherwise staff. Providedall the demographicfacts and details like change within the workforceelementsisnever avery practical probabilityfor mostof the schools or teaching organizations in the Hong Kong or for any other workplaces in the nation (Wang and Ladegaard, 2008). In a nutshell here are all the facts and details related to the use of English language and also some other languages like Cantonese and Putonghua in the school of Hong-Kong and also in other workplaces where people from several backgrounds work together. References Davison, C. (2007). Views From the Chalkface: English Language School-Based Assessment in Hong Kong. Language Assessment Quarterly, 4(1), pp.37-68. Maza, H. (1957). Language Differences and Political Integration*. The Modern Language Journal, 41(8), pp.365-372. PENNINGTON, M. and YUE, F. (1994). English and Chinese in Hong Kong: pre-1997 language attitudes. World Englishes, 13(1), pp.1-20. Pierson, H., Fu, G. and Lee, S. (1980). AN ANALYSIS OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LANGUAGE ATTITUDES AND ENGLISH ATTAINMENT OF SECONDARY STUDENTS IN HONG KONG. Language Learning, 30(2), pp.289-305. Tsui, A. and Bunton, D. (2000). The discourse and attitudes of English language teachers in Hong Kong. World Englishes, 19(3), pp.287-303. Wang, L. and Ladegaard, H. (2008). Language Attitudes and Gender in China: Perceptions and Reported Use of Putonghua and Cantonese in the Southern Province of Guangdong. Language Awareness, 17(1), pp.57-77. Yu, V. and Atkinson, P. (1988). An investigation of the language difficulties experienced by Hong Kong secondary school students in English medium schools: II some causal factors. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 9(4), pp.307-322. Zhou, Y. (2010). English Language Learning Strategy Use by Chinese Senior High School Students. English Language Teaching, 3(4).

The Arts and Crafts Movement free essay sample

The Arts and Craft movement was a social and artistic movement, which began in Britain in the second half of the nineteenth century and continued into the twentieth spreading to continental Europe and the USA. Its adherents-artists, architects, designers and Craftsmen sought to reassert the importance of and craftsmanship in all arts in the face of increasing industrialization, which they felt was sacrificing quality in the pursuit of quantity. Its supporters and practioners were united not so much by a style rather than the common goal- a desire to break down the hierarchy of the arts and to revive traditional handicrafts and make art that could be affordable to all. The leading exponent and propagandist of the movement was the designer, painter, and social reformer William Morris. He developed the view that art should be both beautiful and functional. His ideal, the pure and simple beauty of modern craftsmanship was further strengthened by his friendships with the painters Edward Burne-Jones and Dante Gabriel Rossetti who also looked to the middle ages for aesthetic guidance . We will write a custom essay sample on The Arts and Crafts Movement or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Yet, while the Arts and Crafts movement was in large part a reaction to industrialization, if looked at on the whole, it was neither anti-industrial nor anti-modern. Some of the European factions believed that machines were in fact necessary, but they should only be used to relieve the tedium of mundane, repetitive tasks. At the same time, some Arts and Crafts leaders felt that objects should also be affordable. The conflict between quality production and demo design, and the attempt to reconcile the two, dominated design debate at the turn of the twentieth century. Though the spontaneous personality of the designer became more central than the historical style of a design, certain tendencies stood out: reformist neo-gothic influences, rustic and cottagey surfaces, repeating designs, vertical and elongated forms. In order to express the beauty inherent in craft, some products were deliberately left slightly unfinished, resulting in a certain rustic and robust effect. There were also socialist undertones to this movement, in that another primary aim was for craftspeople to derive satisfaction from what they did. This satisfaction, the proponents of this movement felt, was totally denied in the industrialised processes inherent in compartmentalised machine production. In the United States, the Arts and Crafts Movement took on a distinctively more bourgeois flavor. While the European movement tried to recreate the virtuous world of craft labor that was being destroyed by industrialization, Americans tried to establish a new source of virtue to replace heroic craft production: the tasteful middle-class home. They thought that the simple but refined aesthetics of Arts and Crafts decorative arts would ennoble the new experience of industrial consumerism, making individuals more rational and society more harmonious. In short, the American Arts and Crafts Movement was the aesthetic counterpart of its contemporary political movement: Progressivism. Art Nouveau, 1890-1914, explores a new style in the visual arts and architecture that developed in Europe and North America at the end of the nineteenth century. The exhibition is divided into three sections: the first focuses on the 1900 Worlds Fair in Paris, where Art Nouveau was established as the first new decorative style of the twentieth century; the second examines the sources that influenced the style; and the third looks at its development and fruition in major cities in Europe and North America. At its height exactly one hundred years ago, Art Nouveau was a concerted attempt to create an international style based on decoration. It was developed by a brilliant and energetic generation of artists and designers, who sought to fashion an art form appropriate to the modern age. During this extraordinary time, urban life as we now understand it was established. Old customs, habits, and artistic styles sat alongside new, combining a wide range of contradictory images and ideas. Many artists, designers, and architects were excited by new technologies and lifestyles, while others retreated into the past, embracing the spirit world, fantasy, and myth. In design Art Nouveau was characterized by writhing plant forms and an opposition to the historicism which had plagued the 19th century. There was a tension implicit throughout the movement between the decorative and the modern which can be seen in the work of individual designers as well as in the chronology of the whole. Its emphasis on decoration and artistic unity links the movement to contemporary Symbolist ideas in art, as seen in the work of the Vienna Secessionists, but the movement was also associated with Arts and Crafts ideas and, as such, Art Nouveau forms a bridge between Morris and Gropius (recognized by Pevsner in his book, Pioneers of the Modern Movement, 1936). In Britain the style was exemplified by the architecture of Rennie Mackintosh, and the design work of the Macdonald sisters. The lingering impact of Morris in England slowed down the progress of the new style in design although Mackmurdo, Godwin, Townsend and even Voysey were influenced towards Art Nouveau. It was in illustration that the ideas were most keenly felt, through the new periodicals and presses the Yellow Book, the Studio, the Savoy, the Hobby Horse and though the work of Beardsley, Ricketts and Selwyn Image. In France, despite Guimards famous glass and iron Metro designs, the movement was best expressed in the applied arts, especially the glassware of Lalique (1860-1945) and Galle (1846-1904). In Belgium, the style was promoted through the Societe des Vingts (Les Vingt) established in 1884, and including Ensor as well as the more characteristically Art Nouveau architects Horta and Van de Velde in its members. In Spain the style was concentrated in the eccentric hands of Gaudi in Barcelona. In Vienna, architects like Wagner, Hoffmann and Olbrich, and artists such as Klimt gathered to promote the style through the Secessionist magazine Ver Sacrum. In Germany, the movement split between the decorative tendencies of Otto Eckman (1865-1902) and the Pan magazine, and the streamlined design of Behrens. In America architects like Sullivan and Wright were influenced by European ideas but conceived Art Nouveau in different terms, whilst designers like Tiffany enthusiastically embraced the movement. Jewelery of the Art Nouveau period revitalized the jewelers art, with nature as the principal source of inspiration, complemented by new levels of virtuosity in enameling and the introduction of new materials, such as opals and semi-precious stones. The widespread interest in Japanese art, and the more specialized enthusiasm for Japanese metalworking skills, fostered new themes and approaches to ornament. For the previous two centuries, the emphasis in fine jewelery had been on gemstones, particularly on the diamond, and the jeweler or goldsmith had been principally concerned with providing settings for their advantage. With Art Nouveau, a different type of jewelery emerged, motivated by the artist-designer rather than the jeweler as setter of precious stones. The jewelers of Paris and Brussels defined Art Nouveau in jewelery, and in these cities it achieved the most renown. Contemporary French critics were united in acknowledging that jewelery was undergoing a radical transformation, and that the French designer-jeweler-glassmaker Rene Lalique was at its heart. Lalique glorified nature in jewelery, extending the repertoire to include new aspects of nature — dragonflies or grasses — inspired by his encounter with Japanese art. The jewelers were keen to establish the new style in a noble tradition, and for this they looked back to the Renaissance, with its jewels of sculpted and enameled gold, and its acceptance of jewelers as artists rather than craftsmen. In most of the enameled work of the period precious stones receded. Diamonds were usually given subsidiary roles, used alongside less familiar materials such as moulded glass, horn and ivory.